Understanding Studio Apartment Sizes and Design


Intro
In the world of real estate, the size of living spaces can feel like a riddle wrapped in an enigma. Particularly, studio apartments spark curiosity among renters and buyers alike. Balancing comfort, design, and function, these compact dwellings hold an attraction for those looking to simplify their lives.
Contrary to popular belief, the average size of a studio apartment is not universal. Numerous factors come into play—urban versus rural settings, cultural influences, and market variability—that shape what one can expect when hunting for that perfect space. By delving into these dimensions, we arm ourselves with knowledge that is critical for navigating the bustling apartment market.
So why does understanding the average size of a studio apartment matter? The intricacies of today’s real estate climate, paired with shifting lifestyle preferences, push individuals to reconsider their living arrangements. With the rise of minimalism and urban living, knowing these dimensions can significantly impact one’s design choices, functionality, and ultimately, the quality of life.
In this exploration, we’ll cover architectural nuances, regional differences, and smart strategies to maximize studio apartment layouts. Through this journey, readers will discover how to make informed decisions that resonate with their unique needs and lifestyles, allowing them to thrive in their chosen spaces.
The Concept of Studio Apartments
Studio apartments have become increasingly popular in recent years, particularly in urban environments where space is a premium. These uniquely designed living spaces offer a variety of benefits for the modern dweller, making them an appealing choice for students, young professionals, and even retirees.
When we delve into the importance of understanding studio apartments, several elements come into play. Not only does the concept of a studio provide a more affordable option compared to traditional one or two-bedroom apartments, but it also encourages a minimalist lifestyle. In our fast-paced world, people are looking for ways to simplify their living conditions. Studio apartments fit the bill perfectly by reducing clutter and urging occupants to prioritize what they truly need.
But the significance of studio apartments goes beyond mere occupancy; they can also serve as a canvas for creativity. With limited square footage, interior design and space planning become pivotal. The way one arranges furniture, colors used, and even lighting can transform a small area into a cozy haven. Practical design considerations become essential, urging inhabitants to maximize every square inch.
Studio living demands ingenuity; it’s about making space work for you, not the other way around.
Let's unravel this even more by defining what exactly constitutes a studio apartment.
Defining a Studio Apartment
The definition of a studio apartment can vary somewhat depending on the region, but there are common characteristics that most abide by. A studio apartment usually refers to a self-contained living space that combines the bedroom, living area, and kitchenette into a single room. Unlike traditional apartments where walls separate different functional areas, studios embrace an open layout.
Typically, the bathroom is the only separate room in this configuration. Some studio apartments may come with a designated nook for seating or a breakfast bar, but the essence remains the same: living efficiently in a compact area.
As a potential renter or buyer evaluates a studio apartment, it’s beneficial to be aware of its average size. The size can significantly impact your overall living experience, affecting everything from furniture selection to daily routines. Knowing the specifics will better equip you to make an informed decision, aligning your expectations with reality.
Standard Measurements
Understanding standard measurements for studio apartments is vital for anyone navigating the real estate terrain. These measurements help potential renters or buyers discern whether a space aligns with their lifestyle, preferences, and needs. Having a firm grasp on average sizes and square footage can guide effective decision-making and ensure that expectations are set properly.
Using standard measurements, individuals can effectively assess how much space they require for living comfortably, accommodating furniture, or even pursuing hobbies. Measurements can also assist in evaluating areas for storage, workspace, and social interactions—considerations that can significantly impact one’s living environment. When pondering a studio apartment, it’s essential to visualize how these benchmarks would play into your daily routine and lifestyle.
Average Size Benchmarks
When it comes to studio apartments, the average size benchmarks can vary quite a bit depending on the location and market conditions. On a broad scope, most studio apartments typically hover around 300 to 600 square feet. Larger urban markets tend to skew towards the higher end of that range. Cities like New York and San Francisco often showcase studios above 500 square feet, while smaller towns might present options in the lower range.
This average isn’t just a number; it's a reflection of the living experience. Picture a compact yet functional space: it needs to serve multiple purposes— bedroom, living area, and, in some cases, even a workspace. Developers are increasingly pushing the envelope, adopting innovative floor plans that maximize utility within a limited footprint.
Key Points about Size Benchmarks:
- Market Variability: Sizes fluctuate dramatically based on trends and demand.
- Functionality: Studio sizes can directly affect day-to-day actions—cooking in cramped spaces or how guests are hosted.
- Accessibility and Flow: Well-sized studios support a good flow between functional areas, achieving a semblance of spaciousness despite the small footprint.
"Knowing your space allows you to tailor your living to fit your needs, avoiding the pitfall of a too-small or inefficiently designed apartment."
In summary, understanding these benchmarks can pave the way for a more informed housing choice. If you’re eyeing a studio, ensure its size aligns with not just what you want, but what you genuinely need on a day-to-day basis.
Square Footage Expectations
Square footage expectations delve deeper into how much room is truly available once you enter a studio apartment. It’s not merely about the total area; it's about how that area is distributed and utilized. For instance, a 400-square-foot studio may feel infinitely larger with smart design than a disjointed layout in a 600-square-foot space.
When you step foot into a studio, consider how the square footage translates into living arrangements:
- Living Area: This is often the largest space, typically housing a sofa, coffee table, and maybe even a small dining area.
- Kitchenette: Many studios feature small kitchens. Expectations are low, but efficiency is key here; multi-functional appliances can work wonders in these spaces.
- Sleeping Quarters: The delineation of sleeping areas can vary from flexible furniture solutions to dedicated sections.
Thus, it’s important to dissect these elements and factor in your personal lifestyle before making a decision. By managing square footage expectations realistically, future tenants or buyers can find satisfaction in their living environments without feeling cramped or overwhelmed.
Variations Across Locations


The size of studio apartments isn’t a one-size-fits-all scenario. Variations across locations play a crucial role in how these units are designed, used, and perceived. Understanding the dimensions of a studio apartment becomes essential for prospective renters and buyers, particularly when they consider urban versus rural settings. This section sheds light on the significance of these variations, unpacking the concept of size with respect to how location shapes living space.
Urban vs. Rural Definitions
In urban areas, space is at a premium, and studio apartments often utilize every inch available. For example, a studio in New York City might average around 400 to 600 square feet, with layouts cleverly crafted to accommodate necessary living areas like sleeping, cooking, and relaxing without unreasonable compromises. However, in contrast, rural studio apartments tend to offer more square footage, perhaps 600 to 800 square feet or more, where the emphasis is often on comfort rather than maximum utility.
It's important to recognize that city life often leads to unique layouts. A studio in a bustling part of San Francisco may incorporate high ceilings or built-in furniture that maximizes vertical space. On the flip side, a studio in the countryside might boast larger windows, allowing natural light to pour in, effectively expanding the sense of space.
Regional Differences in Size
Beyond urban and rural definitions, regional differences in size also play a significant role in shaping perceptions of what a studio apartment should be. Let’s take the West Coast versus the Midwest as a case in point. On the West Coast, particularly in cities like Los Angeles, studio apartments often reflect a lifestyle centered around outdoor access and entertainment. Thus, while they might be smaller—averaging 450 square feet—they may incorporate patios or balconies to emphasize indoor-outdoor flow.
In contrast, looking to cities in the Midwest, like Chicago or Minneapolis, studios can be slightly larger, often ranging between 600 to 800 square feet as space is generally more accessible. Here, the architecture tends to favor a more traditional layout with possibly separate areas for navigating daily routines smoothly.
Understanding these regional discrepancies can influence decisions about which city or area to explore when considering a studio apartment. Known factors such as economy, cost of living, and demand for housing play into sizings, with income levels often dictating what is feasible.
"Location is more than just an address; it's a defining aspect of what your space will feel like."
A Quick Recap
- Urban studios are often smaller but designed to maximize space.
- Rural studios provide more room with an emphasis on comfort.
- West Coast units may prioritize outdoor living, while Midwest apartments focus on traditional layouts.
As you dive deeper into your apartment-hunting journey, remember to consider not only the physical dimensions but also the influence of geographic factors. They play a substantial role in your living experience, shaping not just the size of your studio, but also the overall ambiance of your home.
Factors Affecting Apartment Size
Understanding the factors that impact the size of studio apartments is essential for anyone navigating the real estate world or simply considering a cozy living space. Studio apartments, known for their versatile functionality, often face constraints that can affect their dimensions. Factors like building codes, market demand, and regional differences play a significant role in determining these sizes.
Whether you are an interior design aficionado or a real estate enthusiast, grasping these elements allows for better choices in space utilization and increases awareness of what can be achieved within a studio setting.
Building Codes and Regulations
Building codes and regulations shape how much space an apartment can have. Local laws dictate minimum and maximum sizes, influencing the design and layout. For instance, in urban areas where space is at a premium, codes may encourage more compact designs while still ensuring livability and safety.
Here are a few aspects to consider:
- Safety Regulations: These ensure that apartments meet basic safety standards, such as emergency exits, electrical systems, and plumbing.
- Zoning Laws: Different neighborhoods might have specific zoning laws, governing how buildings are constructed and their overall dimensions.
- Historical Restrictions: In some regions, older buildings might face strict regulations aimed at preservation, limiting extensive renovations that could alter sizes.
These codes prioritize the well-being of residents and help maintain a standard across various properties, but they can also pose challenges for those wishing for more spacious living arrangements.
Market Demand and Pricing Trends
Market demand is another significant driver influencing the size of studio apartments. When demand increases, especially in metropolitan areas, landlords and developers often find ways to maximize profit. This can lead to somewhat smaller units designed to attract a broader range of tenants.
Here are some points to be aware of:
- Desirable Locations: In hot markets like New York or San Francisco, studio apartments tend to shrink as developers aim to offer more units in limited spaces, despite high prices.
- Buyer Preferences: Today’s renters often seek affordable options, which can lead to smaller, more efficient designs. Amenities, such as shared spaces or community features, become critical in contrasting these size limitations.
- Trend Cycles: The real estate market tends to ebb and flow; during some times, larger apartments may see a resurgence in popularity due to changing demographics or economic factors.
"The size of an apartment is not merely a number, but a reflection of what people are willing to pay and the space they demand."
Being aware of how these market dynamics influence studio apartment sizes allows potential renters or buyers to approach their search with realistic expectations, leading to more informed decisions.
Design Considerations in Studio Apartments
When it comes to studio apartments, design considers more than just aesthetics; it’s about efficiency, functionality, and adapting to lifestyle demands. The layout and how a space is arranged can significantly enhance the living experience. With a studio, where the square footage is compact, thoughtful design choices become paramount. It's all about making every inch count while creating a harmonious flow within the space.
Maximizing Space Efficiency
Maximizing space efficiency is crucial in a studio apartment. These small living quarters, while cozy, often require innovative solutions to avoid feeling cramped. Here are several strategies to squeeze the most out of available space:
- Multifunctional Furniture: Invest in furniture that doubles up on functionality. For instance, a bed that folds into the wall or a coffee table that can lift up into a dining table can significantly enhance usability.
- Vertical Solutions: Rely on vertical space by using shelves reaching up to the ceiling. This not only adds storage for books or decorative items but also draws the eye upward, creating an illusion of height.
- Zoning Areas: Use rugs or room dividers to define distinct areas for sleeping, cooking, and lounging without walls. This method can help maintain privacy while keeping the openness intact.


The goal here is not just to fit everything but to make the space feel more spacious and open.
Essential Amenities and Layout
In a studio apartment, the layout is a delicate dance between necessity and comfort. Understanding essential amenities plays a key role in crafting a livable space. Consider the following:
- Kitchen Essentials: A small but efficient kitchen is vital. Appliances such as a compact fridge and a two-burner stovetop can fit neatly into a limited space without sacrificing functionality. These features allow for cooking without the need for a full-sized kitchen.
- Bathroom Layout: An efficient bathroom is equally important. Think about placing a small shower instead of a full bathtub. This becomes essential in maintaining floor space while still providing necessary amenities.
- Storage Solutions: Without closets to spare, innovative storage can utilize otherwise neglected areas. For example, using the space under the bed for boxes or having ottomans that open up for storage can clear up floor space, creating a cleaner look.
"In a studio, every element needs to have purpose. Every item chosen should serve a function—whether that’s storage or style."
By thoughtfully selecting these essential amenities and carefully considering layout, one can turn a studio apartment into a comfortable and livable home, despite the square footage limitations.
Comparative Analysis with Other Apartment Types
When exploring the dimensions of studio apartments, comparing them against other types of apartments becomes crucial. This analysis provides context to their size, functionality, and overall appeal. Understanding the differences sheds light on how studio apartments stack up against one-bedroom and loft-style options, enabling potential renters and buyers to make informed choices based on their lifestyle needs and preferences.
A comparative approach helps highlight key elements:
- Space Efficiency: Studio apartments are often touted for their compact layout, optimized for minimal living. In contrast, one-bedroom apartments offer a separate sleeping area, which could be appealing for those valuing privacy. Loft-style apartments, on the other hand, typically present an expansive, open space that can accommodate various layouts but often come with higher ceilings and unique architectural features.
- Affordability: Rent prices tend to vary significantly between these types. Studio apartments are generally more budget-friendly, making them attractive to young professionals or students. One-bedrooms demand a higher price due to the additional space, which can be a substantial factor for those crunching numbers, while loft-style apartments may come with a premium for their aesthetic charm and location in trendy neighborhoods.
- Flexibility and Design: Each type offers different design angles. For instance, studios encourage minimalism and creativity in design, pushing residents to maximize their space and utilize multi-functional furniture. One-bedrooms allow for more distinct areas for living and sleeping, while lofts often feature exposed beams and large windows that invite a modern vibe.
Another consideration in this comparison is how these apartments interact with different lifestyles, hinting at suitability based on personal preferences. For instance, a busy city dweller might thrive in a studio that encourages efficient living, while a couple seeking comfort may opt for a one-bedroom to accommodate both partners seamlessly.
"Choosing the right apartment type is not just about size; it's about lifestyle compatibility and personal priorities."
One-Bedroom Apartments
One-bedroom apartments present an alternative that many individuals and couples find desirable. Typically ranging from 600 to 800 square feet, these units provide a delineation between the living and sleeping areas, which can be beneficial for those who value privacy. Their layout often features a separate kitchen, living room, and bathroom, granting a more traditional apartment feel compared to a studio.
For those interested in hosting guests, the one's separation of spaces can create a more inviting environment. Moreover, they allow for greater personal expression without the constraint of compact living, making them a popular choice among young professionals and couples looking to put down roots. The downside, however, is the trade-off in cost—one-bedroom apartments are frequently more expensive to rent than studios, which is worth considering for those on a budget.
Loft-style Apartments
Loft-style apartments are another intriguing option on the market. Typically characterized by their high ceilings and large, open spaces, lofts embody the essence of urban chic. Often repurposed from commercial buildings, these apartments feature exposed brick, ductwork, and vast windows that create a light-filled interior. The square footage can vary wildly—some lofts can reach over 1,000 square feet, offering ample room for creativity in design.
This apartment type attracts creative individuals who appreciate the potential for personalized touch. Open layouts allow for the easy concoction of living spaces that morph depending on activity—be it a command center for work or an art studio. Still, they tend to demand a premium on price, making them less accessible for budget-conscious renters.
In essence, the comparative analysis illustrates a spectrum of choices, each catering to distinct tastes and requirements. Understanding these differences can provide a clearer picture for anyone embarking on the journey of finding their ideal living space, whether it’s the compact charm of a studio or the expansive allure of a loft.
Renting Considerations
Renting a studio apartment isn’t just about finding a roof over your head; it involves a series of careful considerations that could affect your living experience long after you’ve signed the lease. One might find the allure of a compact living space in the heart of the city irresistible, but it’s essential to weigh multiple factors before making that leap. The importance of understanding the nuances of renting specifically relates to securing a space that aligns with your lifestyle and budget while ensuring satisfaction over the long haul.
Evaluating Rent Prices
When diving into the rental market, evaluating rent prices for studio apartments can feel a bit like walking a tightrope. Market conditions, local demand, and amenities all play significant roles in how a price tag is determined. Here are key thoughts to consider:
- Location, Location, Location: Studios in the bustling parts of downtown will likely carry premiums over those tucked away in quieter edges of the town. The neighborhood’s vibrancy or tranquility could heavily influence monthly costs.
- Size and Condition: An older building with basic amenities may present a cheaper option compared to a newer complex with modern appliances and luxe finishes. The average size of a studio apartment often dictates its market value as well.
- Utilities Included: Some listings seem cheaper until you realize they don't include utilities. Always check whether rent covers water, gas, electricity, or internet.
- Market Trends: Staying aware of current market trends can guide you. Are rents rising or falling? This knowledge equips you with facts when discussing figures with landlords.
"Knowledge is power, and nowhere is this truer than when negotiating your rent. Identify the trends and use them to your advantage."
As you evaluate these factors, it becomes clearer what your budget really means in relation to actual living conditions. Being informed ensures you won’t find yourself at the mercy of inflated prices in competitive markets.
Negotiating Lease Terms
Once you’ve pinned down potential studio apartments within your budget, negotiating lease terms comes into play. Don’t shy away from negotiation; many landlords expect it. Here’s how to approach it:
- Length of Lease: A longer lease might earn you a better rate. Consider your plans—if you foresee staying for a while, you might negotiate for a lower monthly payment.
- Move-in Dates: Timing can be everything. If you have flexibility, you might negotiate a move-in date that better suits the landlord’s timeline, possibly resulting in a rent discount.
- Maintenance Responsibilities: Discuss who’s responsible for repairs and upkeep. If the landlord manages this, it might justify a slightly higher rent.
- Additional Perks: Sometimes, negotiating isn’t just about money. Ask for perks like free parking, or access to on-site laundry, that could add value to your experience in the apartment.
Engaging in negotiations is all about being pragmatic and understanding. The goal is to cultivate a deal that feels mutually beneficial. Don’t forget, it's perfectly reasonable to ask questions—after all, this will be your living space.
In summary, the consideration of renting a studio apartment is about more than just price; it’s an intricate balance of awareness, negotiation, and readiness to adapt. Whether you’re a first-time renter or a seasoned pro looking for a smaller living space, staying informed about rent prices and lease negotiations can make all the difference.


Impact on Living Experience
The dimensions of a studio apartment significantly shape the living experience. The limited space can be a double-edged sword; while it might foster a cozy atmosphere, it also demands functional design choices. Understanding this balance is key for those considering making a studio their home.
Lifestyle Adaptations
Adapting to a studio living arrangement often requires some adjustments. First off, minimalism usually becomes more than just a trendy catchphrase; it transforms into a necessity. This doesn’t mean sacrificing comfort; it's about making smart choices. For instance, instead of large furniture pieces, opting for multi-functional items can make a world of difference. A sofa bed, or a foldable dining table can easily elevate the functionality of the space without creating a cluttered feel.
Another consideration is the storage solutions. Traditional apartments often come with ample closet space, but studios are a different ballgame. Creative storage solutions are essential. Think under-bed storage or wall-mounted shelves that don’t take up floor space. These adaptations enhance living quality, helping residents maintain a sense of order amid compact living conditions.
"The key to successfully living in a studio apartment is to embrace space-saving creativity and not just see it as a limitation."
Lastly, lifestyle habits do tend to change. Cooking at home becomes a more calculated endeavor. It’s essential to plan meals efficiently and minimize messy cooking processes while maximizing use of appliances to ensure the tiny kitchen remains functional and tidy.
Cohabitation in Studio Spaces
When it comes to cohabitation in studio settings, it’s like trying to dance a tango in a phone booth. The challenge lies not only in managing space but also in navigating personal dynamics. To make things work smoothly, clear communication becomes vital. Defining boundaries is not about drawing lines but discussing how shared spaces will function.
Creating areas dedicated to specific activities can maintain balance. For example, one part of the studio could be designated for work while another serves leisure purposes. To avoid conflicts, it’s beneficial for couples or roommates to establish rules about quiet hours and shared responsibilities.
Moreover, the intimacy of a studio often deepens relationships, as shared experiences in close quarters require collaboration. Learning how to coexist in such proximity can instill a sense of partnership, encouraging residents to work together for a harmonious living environment.
Trends Influencing Studio Apartment Design
The world of studio apartments is continuously changing, shaped by shifts in societal attitudes, innovative technologies, and evolving lifestyles. Understanding these trends is crucial not only for renters and buyers but also for designers and developers alike. Recognizing the nuances of current design trends can make the difference between a space that feels cramped and one that feels cozy, welcoming, and functional.
Minimalist Aesthetics
Minimalism has taken center stage in the design of studio apartments. The idea is simple: less is more. Minimalist aesthetics prioritize clean lines, uncluttered spaces, and essential furnishings, creating a serene environment where every item has purpose. It's about stripping down to the essentials while maintaining style and function. In a studio, where space is often at a premium, this approach can significantly affect how a resident interacts with their environment.
Benefits of Minimalist Design:
- Space Optimization: Each piece of furniture is selected for its functionality and style, allowing for clever storage solutions. Think murphy beds or multi-purpose coffee tables.
- Visual Calmness: A clutter-free space can reduce stress levels. There’s something comforting about simplicity that appeals to many individuals living in studio apartments.
- Easier Maintenance: With fewer items comes less cleaning. This functional aspect aligns well with busy lifestyles.
Sustainability Initiatives
Another growing trend in studio apartment design is sustainability. As environmental awareness expands, apartment developers and designers are keen on integrating eco-friendly practices into their projects. Sustainable design focuses on materials and energy efficiency, aiming to create homes that are not only livable but also resonate with a greater purpose.
Key Aspects of Sustainable Design:
- Eco-friendly Materials: From bamboo flooring to reclaimed wood, using sustainable materials not only minimizes environmental impact but often adds a unique character to the space.
- Energy Efficiency: Incorporating energy-efficient appliances and smart systems can greatly reduce a resident's carbon footprint and utility expenses. Things like programmable thermostats and energy-star rated appliances are becoming standard offerings.
- Biophilic Design: This approach focuses on connecting residents to nature. Incorporating indoor plants or maximizing natural light can improve air quality and enhance well-being.
"Design isn’t just how it looks; it’s how it works and how it feels—especially in smaller spaces."
In summary, the trends influencing studio apartment design are diverse yet interconnected. Minimalist aesthetics help manage limited space effectively, while sustainability initiatives ensure that these spaces are not just homes but also contribute positively to the planet. Ultimately, understanding these trends can guide smarter design decisions that cater to both functionality and environmental consciousness.
Future Outlook on Studio Apartments
As urban landscapes continue to shift and evolve, the studio apartment remains a beloved option for many, particularly in bustling cities where space is at a premium. Understanding the future of studio apartments is key for both renters and investors, as it sheds light on trends that dictate choices in living arrangements. This exploration features significant insights that are indispensable when considering what’s next for this compact living style.
Housing demand is not just influenced by economic variables, but also by changing social dynamics and preferences. Millennials and Gen Z, known for their pursuit of convenience and minimalism, are steering the ship towards a future where smaller, thoughtfully designed living spaces are cherished more than ever.
Predictions for Changing Size Trends
Studio apartments are likely to undergo transformations that lead to an increase in average sizes in certain markets. As urban populations grow, developers could focus on creating smarter layouts that enhance livability in less square footage. Here are some predictions for changing size trends:
- More flexible designs: The traditional boundaries of studio living might blur as modular designs become popular. This may allow for areas that can transform from a bedroom to a living space or workspace.
- Amenities integration: Future studio apartments may incorporate shared amenities, thus lessening the need for larger square footage. These buildings may feature co-working spaces, gyms, and communal areas, fulfilling various lifestyle needs without expanding individual apartment sizes.
- Urban infill projects: Cities might repurpose underutilized spaces for studio apartments, altering their size dynamics according to the requirements of urban dwellers. As a result, more sustainable practices in housing construction could lead to redefined average sizes, emphasizing functionality over sheer area.
In essence, as family structures and lifestyle preferences evolve, so too will the dimensions that define these spaces.
The Role of Technology in Apartment Living
Technology undeniably shapes how we interact with our living environments. In the future, studio apartments will likely increasingly reflect this influence. The impact of technology on apartment living is multifold: from enhancing comfort, to improving efficiency, to streamlining daily routines.
Consider the following elements:
- Smart home integrations: Features such as smart thermostats, lights, and security systems will become standard, offering convenience in smaller spaces without compromising on comfort. A studio equipped with voice-activated systems can significantly enhance the living experience.
- Virtual reality insights: As renters consider their options, virtual reality tours will enable them to assess various studio layouts without physically stepping foot in each one. This technology could also help in visualizing how design choices alter spatial perception.
- Sustainable options: Energy-efficient appliances will likely be a staple in future studio apartments, helping occupants save on utility bills while being environmentally conscious. The rise of green technology is aligned with a broader trend toward sustainability that resonates with younger generations.
The intersection of technology and housing is an ongoing conversation that will shape the studio apartment landscape. Keeping an eye on these advancements is crucial for anyone considering investing in or renting this type of living space.